“Lessons of History”: Commentary & Highlights
And Why They Matter
I have an unexplainable repulsion towards history. When I noticed that this book was recommended several times by some of the most influential people I knew that It was a must read. To my consternation, I was pleasantly surprised that the book was not an abridged version of human history condensed into a couple of hundred pages. Rather this book focused heavily on the lessons of history and how they can be applied in our lifetime.
Will and his wife Ariel Durant are prolific historians and multiple Pulitzer prize-winning authors. Their greatest work, “A Story of Civilisation” which was an impressive 7 volume series that thorough synthesized the whole of history from the Persian empire to Napoleon’s exile.
Being consumed by history, it was easy for the two to effortlessly discover models by recognizing patterns. History was cyclical, history does suggest that it actually does repeat itself. Polarizing movements from one side of a dichotomy to another continually keeps the cultural climate moving — usually progressing.
Let’s just go straight into it.
Analysis
Summary
There are 5 main ideas that I took away from reading this book. Remember, this is not a comprehensive review or abridged version of history. Rather, these are the lessons gathered from more than 5,000 years of human history.
Biology
Biology shapes us and genetically differentiates us from birth. Therefore, humans must adhere to the laws of biology as well. Competition is the contest of resources. Cooperation is an extended tool of competition for families, tribes, and nations. If competition is a battle for resources, then war is the nation’s version of “eating”.
The natural law of competition produces selection. Some individuals are better equipped than others to meet the “tests of survival”. Consequently, some may fail (in their peril of death) while others will succeed. This natural inequality scales in complexity with the birth of civilization starting from physiological resources like food and water to more civil resources found in economics. If those statements are axiomatic truth then, “Freedom & equality are sworn, enemies. When one prevails the other dies. Utopias of equality are doomed.” There is a great book called “The Upside of Inequality” that talks heavily on this subject. Inequality extinguishes motivation while concurrently lowering innovation. The combination leads to the eventual collapse as seen by communistic countries. Similarly, Scandinavian countries that implement socialism lose a tremendous amount of freedom on the individual level, such as breeding. The goal is to find a happy balance of inequality (natural law) and freedom(human rights).
Breeding is the by-product of being the dominant organism (through natural selection, multi-level selection, or competition). Nature has little use for unsuccessful organisms that cannot reproduce, its why we have witnessed countless extinctions. However, if there are “too many mouths to feed,” as Durant suggested, 3 agents of population control will restore balance war, famine, or pestilence. More modern cures for natural population control has been the development of contraceptives. Needlesstosay, natural laws continue and state that a nation with low birth rates, proportionally, will encounter reduced economic power within society. This was an interesting concept for me. I always pontificated the idea of an overpopulated Earth and its potential solutions. Agriculture is one of the many industries in my opinion that could use some modern ingenuity and innovation to produce more while simultaneously becoming more sustainable. Yet, the concept of war (genocide) and other agents of control never crossed my mind.
Religion
If you have read my summaries on “The Righteous Mind” and “Maps of Meaning” you know my opinion on religion and its historical significance in constructive a cohesive nation. Durant, being a philosopher by trade, argued a separate additional reason for religion aside from creating order from chaos, instilling laws, embedding ethics, and nurturing the maturation processes for children. He suggested that religion was another mechanism to keep the poor from murdering the rich through the idea of “hope”. Interesting concept hahaha. I think it could certainly be the case in some scenarios. He continued his theory by stating,
“As long as there is poverty there will be gods.”
The creation and practice of religion are so essential to the success of a civilization that Durant did not discover a great society to contain some sort of religion. The reason is that when institutional laws are insufficient morality and ethics must carry the remaining burden. He finishes by stating, “There is no significant example in history, before our time, of a society successfully maintaining moral life without the aid of religion.”
Economics
Y’all ready for a difficult quote? Haha here it is:
The men who can manage men manage the men who can manage only things, and the men who can manage money manage all.
I mentioned that the complexity of inequalities scaled exponentially with the development and progressive evolution of a civilization. Economics is what I meant. No longer are we scavenging and fighting for basic physiological needs. The construct of civilization changed our concept of resources and its competition. Now, the motivation from some type of profits propels economic systems. Durant added, “Substitutes (such as slavery, police supervision, ideological enthusiasm) are too unproductive & expensive and/or transient.”
A naturally reoccurring cycle of wealth and power concentration and distribution has been recorded throughout history. “The 80/20 principle” talked about this natural occurrence of the minority obtaining the majority of resources available as well, and here we see Durant covering the same concept. In civilization, the concentration can become disproportionately greater than tolerable by the masses that a critical juncture is reached. If that occurs (like it has in the past) a revolt transpires or more civilly legislature corrects. Regardless of the solution, the concentration of both wealth and power will gradually happen again and this is an “eternal cycle” as Durant puts it.
War
In history, Durant recalled that less than 10% of the time has experienced true peace. This means that war is constant. If you remember in the Biology sections I mentioned that the cause of war is the same agent of catalyzation for war, yet on a grander scale than humans or tribes. Durant asserted, “The state has our instincts but not our restraints”. The state has the same intrinsic desire to acquire new resources to thrive and defend its territory tirelessly, yet, the state does not contain the same physical restraints that we have on an individual level or tribal level.
States (like individuals and tribes) have the ability to cooperate with each other when they both are being attacked or threatened by a common state.
The vicious condition of war is a natural manifestation of the 80/20, yet war continually invents and improves. There is a balance of positive and negative valence based outcomes for war and Durant suggested that until interplanetary war becomes feasible we will more than likely continue to experience war on Earth.
We may make contact with ambitious species on other planets or stars; soon thereafter there will be an interplanetary war. Then, and only then, will we of this earth be one.
Progress
In this section, Durant exhausts all efforts to define progress. Is progress the increase in happiness? If we are using that data point as a marker then probably not. Unhappiness still contaminates our world. We can consider human life expectancy as a measure of progress, in that case, a table of mortality rates through the years, is a great indicator of progress. We may be astonished by the amazing abilities expressed from ancient civilizations, yet we overlook their high-rates of infant mortality and short lifespans due to lack of medical innovation.
Another measure of progress could be literacy and education in general. Our desire to disseminate higher education to the masses is our grandest achievement and marker of progress.
The ending got quite unclear to me. This book was quite literal lessons and patterns of history, however, towards the end, Durant’s philosophy trade exposed itself. The cryptic texts made it challenging to uncover. So, this is my interpretation.
If history is merely a record of our created heritage and culture, then progress is the preservation, appending, modifying, transmission and use. We are to use our history as corrective models to plan our future. This is pulling similarities from “Maps of Meaning” on the subject of enculturation and using episodic memories to construct models for us to use (particularly children).
Additional Chapters
Geography
In history, we were typically constrained by along the waterways that provided life, from the Nile of Egypt to the Rhone of France. The Airplane allowed for land-mass dominate countries to flourish as they were not inhibited by their feeble amounts of water exposure.
This is my interpretation. The next major innovation for transport will create the new powers within the world, and ultimately the solar system. Assuming we will be interplanetary in this millennia.
But at the end of the day “man, not the earth, makes civilization” by transforming the possibilities into fact.
Race and History
Throughout history, each race thought that they were superior beings. The success of civilization was dependant on Gobineau, a 1800s French elitist. His testimony of proof was the non-existence of amazing civilization along fertile rivers of America and noted the degeneration of civilizations when the interracial marriage occurred.
A branch of Aryans would be declared superior according to American Madison Grant. He suggested that the conquering of the South created the Athenians and Romans of the Republic. Additionally the invading of India led to the caste system, to prevent intermarriage and stop potential degeneration.
The running truth was that each nation thought that they were superior beings. The fact is that “history is color-blind and can develop a civilization (in any favorable environment) under almost any skin,” then Durant continues to say, “Would any of the white races” have done better in Africa? “It is remarkable how many American Negroes have risen to high places…in the last one hundred years despite a thousand social obstacles.”
When one conquers another they borrow from them and spread modified versions of that which they ruin. Civilization is not derived by a race rather the civilization (culture) make the people.
“There is no cure for [racial] antipathies except a broadened education. A knowledge of history may teach us that civilization is a cooperative product, that nearly all peoples have contributed to it.”
Character and History
The character of the nation is defined by the character of man. There is a positive and negative valence of attributes that continually is balancing the dichotomies of man. “Human nature includes both positive and negative, balancing action vs inaction; fight vs flight; acquisition vs avoidance; association vs privacy; mating vs refusal; parental care vs filial dependence.” What was interesting to me was that humans have experienced very little biological evolution (although the timeframe is narrow). Yet, our evolutions have been a social and cultural change through the transmission of customs and education passed down generations through imitation.
This part of the book ties back with “Maps of Meaning”. The “heroes of action” as Durant puts it is the same archetypical hero noted in Peterson’s book. The Hero is the one that takes the culture beyond its boundaries to adapt and grow. Yet, Durant talks about problematic areas of change when it occurs too quickly (similar to Peterson). Therefore, the implementation of conservative policies and ideologies is a necessary component to counter the radically new.
“the conservative who resists change is as valuable as the radical who proposes it.” New ideas should “go through the mill of objection, opposition, and contumely; this is the trial heat which innovations must survive before being allowed to enter the human race.”
Morals and History
Although morals may vary based on the society it resides in, the codes themselves are actually positively universal and indispensable. Durant discovered that the moral code changes with time and the “economic engine” such as hunting to agriculture to industry (and beyond).
Hunting prioritized survival which included fighting and killing. Gluttony was necessary as the food was scarce and rare. Perpetual reproduction was essential as high mortality rates were prevalent. “Man’s sins may be the relics of his rice rather than the stigmata of his fall.”
Agriculture praised hard work over violence. Family unity was the basis of production. Because children were assets in the farm it was normal to consider birth control (and abortion) immoral. “Female chastity was important to increase chances of suitors and avoid unsupported motherhood. Equal survival of both genders promoted monogamy.”
In industry, families were separated. This was the rise of individualism, particularly in western cultures. Marriages started to be delayed as the economic maturity to support family came later in life. The improvement and spreading of literacy and education catalyzed a wave of religious doubt. Materialistic philosophies arose and nonreproductive sex was helped by contraception.
The ebb en flow of morality exists based on social and economic circumstances. History records a cycle of moral freedom, laxity, and order and moral righteousness. Currently, we adorn moral freedom, soon we will crave modesty and order. Regardless of the social sway, Durant reminds us that
“history is the tale of the exceptional while eschewing the many stories of the ordinary. Behind the facade of war and politics, murder and adultery were millions or orderly homes and affectionate people.”
Socialism and History
Durant declared that capitalism has the ability to promote autonomy and instill the spirit of competition and inventiveness. Although, socialistic-like characteristics have been recorded throughout history, such as state-controlled commerce, wide government employment, price control, welfare, progressive taxation (as noted in the Roman empire to extinguish potential revolt) and many other examples. When a threat arises socialism becomes increasingly more palatable.
This act of socialism has positive attributes but is easily overturned when authorities become corrupt, mainly harboring the taxes and no longer benefiting the populace. Often the rich motivate the masses to revolt when profits are continually cut short. Lastly, disasters (natural or manmade) cause upheaval and discontent.
In the modern day communism has taken on a capitalist flair to stimulate productivity; capitalist societies have taken on socialist programs to curb discontent with inequality; so they continue to look more like each other.
Government and History
Government, like religion, is assigned the task to establish order. The centralized authority has historically been superior to its distributed private force counterpart. Needlesstosay, Plato observed the progression of government and his findings were particularly interesting to me.
A monarchy is one of the most natural forms of government. As we splintered off our hunter and gathering societies and emerged into agriculture it was no surprise that the father of the family and later the chief of a tribe would reign in power. The succession of power from one generation to the next extinguished motivation and promoted gluttony and tyranny.
As a result of the disasters of monarchy, Aristocracy was born. The elite held the power and this creates meaningful stability in morality and culture. Although this was a more logical approach to governance the party was also prone to corruption.
Democracy was the phoenix of the aristocracy ashes. This form of governance seemed to have the most equality and individual liberty. Yet, the inequality, if unchecked, could become too vast causing strife between the rich and the poor.
If that conflict is left uncontrolled the opportunity of tyranny is available leaving a corrupt leader lying about solving problems as the major authority.
This progression was recorded in both the Greecian and Roman empire.
“It is unnatural for a majority to rule, for a majority can seldom be organized for United and specific action, and a minority can. If the majority of abilities is contained in a minority of men, a minority government is as inevitable as the concentration of wealth.”
Growth and Decay
This section discussed the growth & decay patterns of civilization. The framework was considered cyclical by Durant. Each conception of a civilization originated by the conquest of one group by another, typically adopting and modifying then spreading the victor’s modus operandi. Growth is defined by meeting external challenges and overcoming them through physical boon and direction people to become productive. That action usually occurs with tension between the ruler and the ruled. The improper use of resources in addition to natural disasters can spark the catalyst for Decay. Similarly economic changes, class wars, external threats, moral upheaval, and laxity.
It’s crazy to see that in 2019 we are oscillating between a monumental shift from conservative morality to more individualistic freedom. The push for progressive left agenda is ever increasing while the conservative party does its best to keep it in check.
When asked if history repeats itself Durant answered back by saying, “By and large it was because human nature is a relatively constant, and it reacts in stereotyped ways to frequently occurring situations like hunger and danger.”
Conclusion
The rhythm of growth and decay in civilization has been recorded throughout time. Using lessons from history we can potentially mitigate or prevent the collapse of our own civilization. The decay usually stems from lack of proper leadership, especially when confronted by new challenges which cannot be overcome.
Understanding these basic lessons in history can unveil the wonders of civilization to us all. Although our decay is inevitable (historically speaking) the achievements created will live on. These are hereditary tools passed down from one generation to the next. “They are the connective tissue of human history. . . Interrupt this transmission for 100 years and we return to being savages.”
This was a great book, and I wish that I had read something like this in High School and College. My disdain towards history would have quickly dissipated. Now I understand fully why this title was recommended by so many icons and shifters in today.
